Refraction Through Water and Crystal; Camera Obscura
Objects seen through water and glass, a crystal casting two shadows and one image, shadow vs. image in a dark room
The right half studies how an object at the bottom of water sends its 'species' to the eye through both water and air, and how a ray crossing a uniformly varying transparent medium reaches the eye along a curve. A long note describes an experiment with two inked dots on the opposite faces of a slab of crystal which — the eye set between the light and the glass — cast two shadows and a single 'simulacrum' (image) on a screen behind, Leonardo arguing that the image rises along its cathetus rather than the ray simply bending from rare to dense. The left half then contrasts the simple shadow of a body with its image in a camera obscura, showing that the derivative shadow spreads and intersects before it can pass through the small aperture.
On this page
An object under water seen through water and air
Of the object situated at the bottom of the water, which sends its species to the eye through the water and through the air. The heading opens the right-hand study, with a lettered figure c – b f p – e – d a – r q.
A ray through a uniformly varying medium curves to the eye
A uniform non-uniformity of the medium interposed between the eye and the thing sends the image of that thing to the eye along a line of uniform curvature.
Two dots on a crystal cast two shadows and one image
Two ink dots marked opposite one another on the two faces of a crystal, with the eye between light and glass a little aside, throw on the wall behind 2 shadows and one image. The image of e appears at d and the real d appears at c; Leonardo says the ray does not bend from rare to dense, but the image rises along its cathetus. The figure is lettered g f – K e h – c – L d i – m n – b a.
Shadow versus image in the camera obscura
The difference between a body's simple shadow and its image is that the simple shadow cannot penetrate the smallest apertures, as the image can. Let the shadowy body be c d, the light a b, and the aperture into the dark place v m h n be r: the derivative shadow c d p intersects at p before reaching r and spreads so that it cannot pass through.
